A Tortuous History -- Finding A Location For The President And Government
The process of finding and designing a home for the president was arduous and hotly contested. The Founding Fathers and other decision-makers of the day came to reject the idea of using Philadelphia, the nation's first capital, as a permanent home. They concluded that national power could only be exercised in a "Federal City," as George Washington called it. Thus any existing city was ruled out.
Compared to other Western nations, this was indeed peculiar. At the time, most nations had as their capital the largest, most established city, one that is also the cultural and financial nucleus, such as London or Paris. But a 1783 power struggle in Philadelphia convinced Congress that it needed supreme power.
During the incident, soldiers in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, were angry over back pay they said they were owed. When they brought their case before the assembled Congress in Philadelphia, demonstrations ensued and some of the Congressmen were blocked from entering the State House. When the Pennsylvania state government did not suppress the rebellion, Congress was "insulted" and felt that the state had failed to protect them. The idea of a special, safe district for Congress, the president and all the offices of the national government -- and one with its very own police powers -- soon caught on and was championed.
The new nation's leaders therefore decided they wanted a pristine location, one that was central and convenient. This meant it was also to have access to both settled lands and a river. The favored ones were the Potomac, the Delaware and the Susquehanna. With only the Eastern seaboard settled at that time -- and years before the annexation of Florida -- the land near Georgetown became a front-runner in the search for a federal home.
After the failure of the Articles of Confederation, the nation began in 1789 to govern under the newly ratified Constitution. George Washington was sworn in on April 30 of that year in New York. In 1790, President Washington signed an act of Congress making Philadelphia the temporary capital for the next 10 years. The Residence Act of 1790 gave the president exclusive power to choose and develop a capital.
Washington probably had a preference for the land near Georgetown because his home was only a few hours away in Mount Vernon. Also, he had always promoted developing the Potomac River, which he saw as the route of commerce between the Atlantic Ocean and the West.
The President's partiality towards the Potomac was made known to Major Pierre L'Enfant, a French military engineer and architect. L'Enfant came to have extraordinary influence over the building of the capital, but was disliked by some for his perceived arrogance and extravagance. Washington then asked L'Enfant and Major Andrew Ellicot, an astronomer and surveyor, to study the land adjacent to Georgetown. L'Enfant appreciated the area because the government edifices-to-be would give views of the countryside for twenty miles into the distance. Such grand horizon lines, appreciated by the European-educated L'Enfant, were unknown in American cities. L'Enfant is also said to have liked the area because of its landscape, lush with oak, sycamore and cedar.
L'Enfant continued work on a plan for the city of Washington into 1791, acting as an unofficial aide to the President. By that time, however, three commissioners had already been appointed to oversee the creation of a "Federal City:" General Thomas Johnson of Frederick, Maryland; Daniel Carroll, who owned the largest piece of land in the area that was to become Washington, DC; and Dr. David Stuart, a plantation owner and personal friend of Washington. They began to grow angry when L'Enfant, in a show of hubris that seemingly afflicted his entire his career, only wanted to deal directly with the president.
Moreover, L'Enfant's power clashed with Thomas Jefferson's, who took to discussing plans with the Commissioners without L'Enfant's consultation. When L'Enfant was finally asked to present his plans in August 1791 to the president, the drawings were more stately and elaborate than was fitting for the newborn, democratic America. It included statues, obelisks and fountains -- more akin to a presidential palace than a mansion. Historians widely attribute L'Enfant's ideas for the architecture of the palace and its place at the center of radiating avenues to his native Versailles, France.
Jefferson, an anti-Federalist, had more moderate ideas and looked to more classic yet functional Parisian city buildings. He imagined a presidential home based more on an ancient Greek temple. Jefferson suggested to L'Enfant that he model the plans after the facade of the Louvre. Jefferson also favored the Garde Meubles building in Paris (now the Ministere de la Marine, Place de la Concorde) and the Avenue de Sceaux at Versailles.
L'Enfant's quarrels and cockiness with the Commissioners included a case in which he removed the house of a brother-in-law of a commissioner without warning them. In January 1792, L'Enfant insisted that he wanted Washington and the Commissioners to make him "Director General," answerable only to the president. Washington refused, and L'Enfant refused to let his plan be used. But by that time, they were already looking for someone to fill his job. He was dismissed on February 26, 1792.
The story of L'Enfant's failure is illustrative of changes afoot in America. The Federalists liked his work. But Republicans like Jefferson, more left-leaning and akin to today's Democrats, disliked anything that seemed kingly or even aristocratic. A New World had been born in the United States of America. In setting itself apart from the monarchies of Europe, it wanted nothing that appeared so princely as L'Enfant's vision.
A Contest to Build a House Fit for a President
"The White House will expand to serve the needs of generations yet unborn."
- George Washington
L'Enfant's dismissal led to a competition to build a President's Palace. In March, Thomas Jefferson placed advertisements in newspapers in Baltimore, Charleston, Richmond, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, and New York, offering $500 or a gold medal of equal value for the winning plans. At that time, it is to be remembered, there were no schools of architecture in America. Any architects either were educated in Europe or had taught themselves. The design specifications included that the building should be adaptable to the addition of wings because the building might need to be expanded in the future. Washington offered guidelines and criticism, but had no experience in architectural design. He had, however, visited Charleston in the Spring of 1791, and historians believe that his visit may have had an influence on the outcome of the first White House. The Ionic columns there are similar to those at the White House.
Small wonder, perhaps, that the winner of the contest was a Charleston resident. Of the seven entrants in the 1792 contest, James Hoban, an Irish-born architect, was chosen. Historians believe he was the only one who made an effort to establish himself professionally. He presented impressive letters of recommendation and made a personal visit.
If this is one of the earliest publicly bid projects in America, it might also be one of the earliest with unethical bidding. It was later discovered, albeit about a century later, that one of the seven entries was submitted by Thomas Jefferson. Knowing that his position as Secretary of State would present a conflict of interest, he submitted his plans for a round house modelled on Palladio's Villa Rotonda in Vincenza, Italy, and signed it with the pseudonym "A.Z." Jefferson's design was small in comparison with the other entries and ignored the adaptability for expansion requirement. If his contemporaries knew it was Jefferson's plan, they kept it quiet.
Hoban designed a three-story Georgian House, with a layout considered practical because wings could be added at a later date. It was thought to be modeled after the Duke of Leinster House in Dublin, Ireland, and similar to the Conde Palace in Paris. Washington asked Hoban in July to increase the dimensions by one-fifth and to add ornamentation to the exterior.
Then came the dollar figures. Construction costs of Hoban's design were estimated to be $400,000. It was financed partially by the sale of government-owned lands in the area of DC, Maryland and Virginia. But there were still difficulties in raising the money, so Washington suggested that Hoban delete a story from his plans.
Benjamin Latrobe, another architect, described Hoban's design as a bad copy of the Leinster House. Hoban's original drawing does not seem to have included the oval rooms, popular in France, which later became part of the construction and later lead to the term "Oval Office" as a synonym for the presidency.
The cornerstone of the White House was laid October 13, 1792. It had 20 rooms, each 22 feet high. It was made in stone, as Washington wanted, rather than in the brick Jefferson had suggested in his ad specifications. As building progressed into the late 1790s, Washington suggested that the amount of stone carving on the exterior be limited; ornate relief was increasingly considered a hallmark of Old World Europe. Ionic columns -- plainer than the more flourished Corinthian columns -- were chosen. The capitals of the columns were, however, richly carved in high relief with leaves and swirls. Other spots around the White House were embellished with some of the best stone carvings in America, in designs of cabbage roses and griffins. The Virginia Sandstone was painted white, probably for reasons of preventing decay from the elements.
George Washington's last year as president was in 1796. Hoban could not complete the house by his own estimated completion date in September 1799. Washington died in 1799 and did not get to see the house in anything close to its finished state. But he did visit the building under construction and walked on its floorboards.
The new President, John Adams, had intended to move in by 1800, but lack of funds continually slowed and delayed completion. When Adams and his wife, Abigail, arrived in the fall of 1800, only six rooms were habitable and they had yet to build the "necessary" -- an outhouse -- in the backyard. When the Adams' moved in, they found the house austere and empty. Mrs. Adams is said to have been distressed at the oversized, chilly house.
It was the biggest house in America for 70 years. Regardless of the scaled-down proportions to satisfy anti-elitist sentiments, it was described by a political satirist -- whom some sources say was Thomas Jefferson -- at the time as big enough for "two emperors, one pope and the grand lama." The Republicans criticized it as a Federalist palace.
Adams lost the election that November and Jefferson became president. The Commissioners' term expired and President Jefferson decided that Hoban's had, too. Jefferson dismissed Hoban in 1801. Jefferson then had architect Latrobe draw plans for adding the North and South Porticoes and the East and West Terraces. Latrobe was also asked to improve the grounds around the house. He added a triumph-arc gateway, which was disliked and later removed.
Hoban was called back to rebuild the house after the British torched it during the War of 1812 while Madison was president.
In August of 1814, British forces under General Ross and Admiral Cockburn captured the city of Washington, and burned and looted the White House and Capital. During this three-hour battle, known as the Battle of Bladensburg, U.S. forces retreated to the Montgomery Court House in Maryland. British soldiers plundered the President's House, taking Madison's property. They reputedly sat down to feast on the dinner for 40 waiting on the table.
The Madisons, with ample warning of approaching forces, escaped in time. In a feat for which she remains beloved, Dolley Madison cut Gilbert Stuart's 1797 portrait of George Washington from the wall to save it. Today, the painting hangs in the East Room of the White House. It is thought by some to be the only surviving original White House possession.
The house lay gutted, looking a bit like ancient ruins, but walls still standing. Some questioned whether the White House was adequately protected from future acts of terrorism. There was talk of moving it elsewhere, but it was not moved. Over 130 workers went to work on rebuilding it. The Madisons, meanwhile, moved to the nearby Octagon house and later to another building on Pennsylvania Avenue until the restoration was completed.
This time, Hoban built an airy South Portico, with two flying staircases leading from the ground level to the first floor. Today, these staircases lead to the Diplomatic Reception Room.
The President's House was ready for President James Monroe to move in by the fall of 1817. Around 1818, Hoban was asked to add additional office spaces. Several years passed before Congress appropriated the $50,000 needed to finishing the front North Portico. It was completed in 1829.
For years afterward, more emphasis was placed on finishing the Capitol Building than on improvements of "President's Square." From Andrew Jackson's time until the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, there were minor improvements and repairs to the President's House. The fundamental structure of it, however, remained unchanged. All additions between 1832 and 1902 were primarily improvements of amenities.
It was, after all, a long road until the president's house was truly made habitable. Until the time of Teddy Roosevelt, the place was generally not hygienic. When presidents William Henry Harrison and Taylor died there the newspapers declared the White House to be in "a dangerously unsanitary state." There was no hot water until Andrew Jackson's second term in 1833, when iron pipes afforded that luxury. In 1837, circulating hot air was added.
Midway through the 19th century, Millard Fillmore brought in the first kitchen stoves; meals at the White House had until then been prepared over an open fireplace. Electric lights were first used during Benjamin Harrison's term, but legend has it that he and his wife preferred not to use the lights because they feared getting a shock.
During these years, the house was generally considered unhealthy in summer months due to the dampness and fog of nearby swamps. Many presidents retreated to summer houses, thereby setting the tradition by which First Families had retreats to which they took long or frequent summer vacations.
By the 1860's the term "White House" was already being used frequently, as opposed to the official "Executive Mansion" or unofficial "President's House." Lincoln refused to have any great sum of money spent on the White House while the nation was embroiled in the Civil War, so his only significant addition to the house was a private passage to his office. He was known for his generosity in letting the public visit the White House at almost any time they asked and even housed troops in the East Room occasionally. After his assassination, a 1867 fire burned down about a third of the conservatories.
When Benjamin and Carol Scott Harrison and their family moved in, they insisted there needed to be more separation between office space and living space. An architect hired by Mrs. Harrison drew a proposal to make a U-shaped structure three times the size of the White house, an enormous structure that approached a palatial grandeur of L'Enfant's plans.
Theodore Roosevelt became president after McKinley's assassination in 1901, and it was he who called in architects McKim, Mead and White to enlarge the building and separate the offices from the living quarters. With six children, Roosevelt saw this as a priority.
Studies showed that the 1817 structure was under too much stress and had undergone too many minor structural changes. In need of adaptation to electric power, plumbing and the like, Roosevelt agreed to vacate the White House for several months so that it could be renovated at a cost of $343,945. The original design, Roosevelt insisted, was to be adhered to as much as possible. The plans leaned on the neo-classical and were a bit of a return to L'Enfant's plans for grand vistas, thus giving birth to the mall.
McKim decided to add an Executive Office Building to the old West Wing, so it would be set back from the White House. This became what is still known today as the Executive Office building, also known as the West Wing. The ground floor of the house was extended. Guests could enter here and walk upstairs to the state floor, which would be more formal. The families would hence live on the Third Floor. Bathrooms were added and the State Dining Room was enlarged.
Architects considered some of the changes strange. Some of the interior Ionic columns were changed to the plainer Doric style. The expenditure -- about half a millions dollars -- came from the Sundry Civil Act, which Roosevelt signed on June 28, 1902.
The house was restored in the neo-Georgian mode. In a report to Congress in 1903, Roosevelt explained why, although expanded, the renovations approached the original plans. "Through the wise provision of the Congress at its last session, the White House, which had become disfigured by incongruous additions and changes, has now been restored to what it was planned to be by Washington...The White House is the property of the nation, and so far as is compatible with living therein it should be kept as it originally was...The stately simplicity of its architecture is an expression of the character of the period in which it was built."
In those days, most of the staff lived in the basement. Most of the servants were African-Americans reared in the South, and the House had a distinctly slow, Southern flavor.
During Franklin Delano Roosevelt's administration, the executive office staff grew along with the New Deal. Thus, in 1934, the West Wing was enlarged. The Oval Office was moved to the southeast corner of the expanded building, which had a better view. Later in his administration, when the United States declared war on Germany and Japan, the East Portico was enlarged to accommodate a bomb shelter and a large security staff. Eleanor Roosevelt was also provided additional office space for her staff, perhaps the first First Lady publicly active enough to warrant it.
When Harry S. Truman became president, the growth of the presidential staff warranted further expansion of the Executive Office wing. This time, it was with a second floor. Congress refused to pay for it. Then, in 1948, Truman wanted to build a balcony on a South Portico. He faced widespread opposition to the plan because it was yet another alteration of the original structure. He got his way.
But later that year, architects discovered that the structure of the White House was unsound. A report done showed that the building had settled and compressed, and was unsafe. Chandeliers trembled when people walked on the floor above. The problem was most vividly demonstrated when Margaret Truman's piano began to break through the floor of the East Room.
The Trumans were advised to move out. The interior wooden beams of the 1800s were decaying, apparently from the gnawing of rats and mice. Steel and concrete replacements prevented the recurrence of erosion by rodents, but talk of the persistence of such pests lingered for years afterward. A February 7, 1949, report estimated renovations would cost $5 million. A Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion was appointed in April to ensure historical and architectural respect for the structure. The entire renovation lasted until 1951, when a plan for interior design was approved. The third floor was redesigned to provide a promenade around the building.
During this renovation, some of the mantel pieces and ornamental plaster removed were saved and are now at the Smithsonian Institution's First Ladies Hall.
"While the structural replacement was an outstanding engineering success," write architects William Ryan and Desmond Guiness in The White House: An Architectural History, "from a preservationist's viewpoint the rebuilding was the greatest calamity to befall the President's House since the fire of 1814."
Despite the foregoing history, in modern days it was First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, the wife of President John F. Kennedy, who is most well known for her contribution to the style of the White House. On his first day in the White House, according to one story, President Kennedy noted a piece of unauthentic, antique-looking furniture. At that time, in 1961 about three-quarters of the White House furnishings were new.
Jacqueline Kennedy, quickly developing a following of admirers for her personal taste and elegance, decided to make a mission out of regaining presidential antiques. Until then, auctions and sales after each White House administration was through -- or was redecorating -- were common. She solicited collectors and began a trend, followed by the next First Lady Pat Nixon, to locate historical White House furnishings. Mrs. Kennedy's championing of historical preservation of presidential interiors also spawned legislation that made such furnishings the "inalienable property of the White House." Also, Mrs. Kennedy founded the White House Historical Association to help raise money and gather preservationists for the house. This period solidified the notion of a "living White House" that is both home to the presidents and museum for the American people. She also created the position of White House Curator, and appointed to the position Rex Scouten, who had been working at the White House since the Truman Administration.
Preservation efforts continued under the Nixon Administration. The goal was to restore the appearance, as much as possible, of an early 19th century mansion. On the other hand, Nixon was also the president who wanted a bowling alley installed.
For better or for worse, many First Families are remembered by such fanciful trivia. FDR installed an indoor pool to help alleviate his polio, later removed by Nixon in order to make room for the burgeoning press corps. Nancy Reagan created a controversy for the amount of money she spent on White House china. Under Ronald Reagan, gun and metal detectors were installed at all visitors' entrances. George Bush had a predilection for playing horseshoes on the lawn, and had both a putting green and a basketball court installed. Continuing the health trend, Clinton added a jogging track.
